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Oxford Law Citator
Contents
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Preliminary Material
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Table of Cases
Australia
Court of Appeal of New South Wales
Court of Appeal of Queensland
Court of Appeal of Victoria
Family Court of Australia
Federal Court of Australia
High Court of Australia
Human Rights Committee
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
Supreme Court of Australian Capital Territory
Supreme Court of New South Wales
Supreme Court of the Northern Territory
Supreme Court of Queensland
Supreme Court of South Australia
Supreme Court of Tasmania
Supreme Court of Victoria
Supreme Court of Western Australia
National Courts
Canada
Fiji
Israel
Lesotho
Pakistan
United Kingdom
United States of America
International Courts
European Court of Human Rights
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Human Rights Committee)
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)
Table of Legislation
Table of Statutes
Primary Legislation
Commonwealth
Australian Capital Territory
New South Wales
Northern Territory
Queensland
South Australia
Tasmania
Victoria
Western Australia
Canada
Colombia
Finland
France
Germany
India
Iran
Italy
Japan
Kenya
Papua New Guinea
Senegal
Singapore
South Africa
Sri Lanka
United Kingdom
Imperial Legislation
United States
Secondary Legislation
Commonwealth
Constitutional Conventions
Intergovernmental Agreements
International Instruments
Treaties, Conventions & etc.
List of Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Main Text
Introduction
A Orientation
B Australian Constitution in Comparative Perspective
1 Familiar Features
2 Distinctive Characteristics
3 Global Orientation
4 Work in Progress
C Conceptual Organization
D With Thanks
Part I Foundations
Ch.1 First Peoples
A Introduction
B Background
C Sovereignty and Treaty-Making
D Rights and Freedoms
E Participation and Decision-Making
F Constitutional Symbolism
1 Symbolism and the Original Constitution
2 Symbolism and the 1967 Referendum
3 Symbolism and the Contemporary Debate
G Conclusion
Ch.2 Settlement
A A Changing History
B Foundations
C Early Cases
D Crimes between Indigenous People
E A Plurality of Laws?
F Later Developments
Ch.3 Federation
A The Idea of Federation
B Historical Context
C Convention of 1891
D Griffith’s Draft and the Contribution of Inglis Clark
E Between the Conventions: Politics and Popular Acceptance
F Convention of 1897–98 and Final Steps towards Federation
G Conclusion
Ch.4 Independence
A Introduction
B The Meaning of ‘Independence’
C Independence and the Constitutions of the Australian Colonies
D Independence and the Commonwealth Constitution
1 Constitutional Amendment
2 Section 51(xxxviii)
E Post-federation Independence
1 Imperial Conferences
2 Statute of Westminster 1931
3 Giving Effect to Independence
4 The Australia Acts 1986
5 Remnants of the Colonial Relationship
6 The Crown and the Queen
F Dating Independence
G Autochthony—Creating an Authentic Australian Constitution
Ch.5 Evolution
A Introduction
B Australian Constitutional Evolution
1 Breadth, Brevity, and the Prospect of Future Completion
C Machinery of Constitutional Evolution
1 Procedures for Change
2 What the Constitutional Actors Have Done
a) British inheritance, United States example, and the beginning of an indigenous constitutional culture
b) Money and power: Commonwealth dominance and the High Court
c) A national judicature and the hegemony of the Commonwealth Constitution
D Conclusion
Ch.6 Ideas
A A Prosaic Constitution?
B The Role of Ideas within a Constitutional Order
C Not Rights but Institutions
D The Founders’ Political Ideals
E The Founders’ Conception of the Polity
F Democratic Ideals in the Constitutional Text
G The High Court, Political Democracy, and Legalistic Method
H Other Examples
I New Ideas?
Part II Constitutional Domain
Ch.7 Rule of Law
A Questions of Definition
B The Constitution as the Starting Point
C The Role of the Judicature
D Determining Generally Applicable Rules
E Changing the Body of Generally Applicable Rules
F Giving Effect to Judicial Decisions
G Compliance with Judicial Decisions—Spending Cases
H Compliance with Judicial Decisions—Migration Cases
I The Rule of Law and the Political Branches of Government
J The ‘Legal Spirit’
Ch.8 Common Law
A What is ‘the Common Law’?
B ‘Common Law Constitutionalism’?
C The Common Law and Sovereignty
D The Reception of the Common Law in Australia
E The Common Law of Australia
F The Temporal Aspect of the Common Law
G Legislative Adoption of the Common Law
H The Crown and the Executive Power
I The Common Law of Interpretation and the Constitution
J Common Law Terms in the Text of the Constitution
K Conclusion
Ch.9 Unwritten Rules
A Introduction
B Defining the ‘Unwritten’ Australian Constitution
C The Political Constitution and Constitutional Conventions
1 Defining, Recognizing, and Enforcing Conventions
2 Types, Scope, and Application of Conventions
a) Exercise of the Governor-General’s powers
b) Collective and individual ministerial responsibility
c) Caretaker conventions
3 Accepted Yet Contested: The Role of Convention in Australia’s Constitutional System after 1975
4 Perceived Failures of Conventions and the Rise of Statutory Accountability Regimes
D Maintaining Political Constitutionalism: Common Law Unwritten Constitutional Rules
E The Legal Constitution and Constitutional Implications
F Conclusion
Ch.10 International Law
A Introduction
B The Effect of Treaty Obligations in Domestic Law
C Domestic Implementation of Treaty Obligations
1 Treaty Obligations and Commonwealth Legislative Power
D Constitutional Interpretation
E The Effect of Treaties on Legislative Interpretation and Executive Power
F Conclusion
Ch.11 Comparative Constitutional Law
A The Domain of Comparative Constitutional Law
1 Inspiration
2 Exposition
3 Development
B Conclusion
Ch.12 State Constitutions
A Introduction
B Historical Origins
C Content of State Constitutions
1 Preamble
2 The Legislature
3 Parliamentary Terms
4 Bicameralism: Resolution of Deadlocks
5 Parliamentary Control of Finance
6 The Executive
7 The Judiciary
D Status of State Constitutions
1 Australia Acts 1986
E State Legislative Power
1 Entrenchment
2 Single and Double Entrenchment
3 Use of Entrenchment
4 Other Potential Entrenchment Grounds
5 Extraterritorial Competence
F State Constitutions as Models of Reform
1 Indigenous Recognition
2 Local Government
G The Future
1 The Republic
2 New States
3 Secession
H Conclusion
Part III Themes
Ch.13 Legitimacy
A Popular Sovereignty
B Legitimacy and Legality
C Conclusion
Ch.14 Citizenship
A Introduction
B British ‘Subjects’ to Australian ‘Citizens’
C The Modest Constitution—Deference to the Parliament
D Challenges to the Modest Constitution?
E Membership Beyond Nationality—‘The People’
F Mooted Amendments
G Conclusion
Ch.15 Constitutionalism
A Introduction to Constitutionalism, Legal and Political
B The British And American Models
C The Establishment of Colonial Constitutions in the Nineteenth Century
D The Establishment of the Commonwealth Constitution in 1900
1 Chapter III of the Australian Constitution
2 Political Constitutionalism
3 Legal Constitutionalism
4 The Protection of Rights
E Judicial Innovations
1 The Legal Protection of Political Rights
2 The Expansion of Chapter III
a) Chapter III as a source of rights
b) The Kable doctrine
c) The expansion of judicial review of executive action
3 Common Law Rights and the ‘Principle of Legality’
F Conclusion
Ch.16 Republicanism
A Introduction
B Australia’s Monarchical Constitution
C Three Faces of Australian Republicanism
1 The Sentimental Republic
2 The Constitutional Republic
D The Theorized Republic
E Conclusion
Ch.17 Unity
A Introduction
B Freedom of Intercourse among the States
C Section 117
D Inconsistency
E Uniform Quality of Justice
F ‘The People’ the Franchise and Citizenship
G Nationhood
Ch.18 Australia in the International Order
A Australia and International Institution-Building
B Australia and the World Court
C Implementing International Law: The Case of Human Rights
D Conclusion
Part IV Practice and Process
Ch.19 Authority of the High Court of Australia
A Introduction
B The High Court’s status as the Apex Court
1 Original Jurisdiction
2 Appellate Jurisdiction
3 Control of its Own Docket: Special Leave, Remittal, and Removal
4 Advisory Opinions
C Institutional Features of the Court
1 Establishment of the Court
2 Appointment of Justices
a) Geography/federalism
b) Political leanings
c) Gender
3 Tenure and Remuneration
4 Conclusion on Institutional Features
D The High Court’s Authority over the Legislative Branch
1 Validity of Legislation
2 Court of Disputed Returns
3 Authority over Money Bills?
4 Powers and Privileges of Parliament
E The High Court’s Authority over the Executive Branch
F Conclusion
Ch.20 Judicial Reasoning
A Introduction
B Accepted Methods in Australian Constitutional Interpretation
1 Text: The Primacy of the Text and Australian Legalism
2 Text: Purpose and Context
3 History
4 Precedent
5 Structural Implications
6 Non-legal Constitutional Reasoning
C Selected Controversies
1 Textualism and Implications
3 Foreign Law and Proportionality
D Conclusion
Ch.21 Standards of Review in Constitutional Review of Legislation
A Approaches to Construction
B The Nature of Legislative Powers
C The Test for Legislation Enacted under Subject Matter Powers
D The Test for Legislation Enacted under Purposive Powers
E The Tests for Constitutionally Guaranteed Freedoms
1 The Test for Legislation Restricting Freedom of Interstate Trade
2 The Tests for Legislation Restricting the Implied Freedom of Political Communication
a) A stricter standard?
b) Deference?
F The ‘Election Cases’
G The Educative Role of the Court
Ch.22 Justiciability
A The Australian Constitutional Context
B The Capability of Issues for Judicial Determination
1 The ‘Political Questions’ Doctrine in the United States
2 ‘Political Questions’ and ‘Justiciability’ in Australia
3 Parliamentary Privileges and Procedures
4 Exercise of Certain Prerogative Powers
5 Intergovernmental Agreements
6 Articulation of Constitutional Criteria
7 Summary in Relation to Matters Appropriate for Judicial Resolution
C Review of a Concrete Dispute by Reference to Particular Facts
D The Claim Is Made by a Party with Standing to Raise It
E The Claim Is Capable of Resolution by Judicial Relief
F Conclusion
Ch.23 Techniques of Adjudication
A Judicial Styles of Analysis and Adjudication
B The High Court’s Original Jurisdiction in Constitutional Litigation
C The Commencement of Proceedings and Pleadings
D Remittal
E Constitutional Facts and the Avoidance of Fact-finding
F Parties
1 Standing
2 Interveners
3 Amici Curiae
G The High Court’s Appellate Jurisdiction in Constitutional Litigation
H Advocacy
I Composition of the Bench
J Conclusion
Part V Separation of Powers
Ch.24 Parliaments
A Introduction
B Federalism
C Representative Government
1 Features Mandated by the Constitution’s Text
2 Parliament’s Initiatives Impacting on Representative Government
3 High Court Interventions to Defend Representative Government
D Responsible Government
1 The Constitution’s Commitment to Responsible Government
2 Adopted Practices and their Impact on Responsible Government
3 The High Court’s Preparedness to Defend Responsible Government
E Conclusion
Ch.25 Executives
A Introduction
1 Constitutions and Executives
2 The Australian Constitutional Inheritance
B The Constitutional Executive
1 The Queen
2 The Governor-General
3 Executive Councils
C The Structure of the Executive
1 The Ministry as a Whole
2 Ministerial Portfolios
3 Ministerial Advisers
4 Ministers: Control and Delegation
5 Secretaries and the Senior Executive Service
6 Agencies
7 Contracting Out
D Control and Co-ordination
1 Political: Prime Minister and Cabinet
2 Financial: Budgets, Appropriations, and Continuing Financial Control
3 Control of Regulatory Activity
E Conclusions
Ch.26 Separation of Legislative and Executive Power
A Introduction
B Legislative Power
1 Framework
2 Delegation
3 Appropriation and Spending
C Executive power
1 Framework
2 Aspects of Inherent Executive Power
3 Taking Stock
D Conclusions
Ch.27 The Judicature
A A (Brief) Look Back at History
1 The Evolution of Courts before the Constitution
2 The Road to a Federal Judicature
B The Australian Judicial System
1 High Court of Australia
2 Lower Federal Courts
3 State Courts
4 Territory Courts
5 (Non-court) Tribunals
6 Judges and other Court Officers
C The Essential Features of Australian Courts
1 Decisional Independence and Impartiality
a) Security of tenure
b) Security of remuneration
c) Separation of powers
d) Appointment of judges
2 Procedural Fairness
3 Open Justice
4 Duty to Give Reasons
D Conclusion
Ch.28 The Separation of Judicial Power
A Introduction
B The Origin of the Separation of Powers Doctrine in the Australian Constitution
C Development of the Doctrine: History, Rationale, and Underlying Principles
D The Consequences of Boilermakers
E The Separation of Judicial Power and the Protection of Individual Rights
F The Separation of Judicial Power and Federalism
G The Future of the Separation of Judicial Power Doctrine
Ch.29 The Constitutionalization of Administrative Law
A Origins, Purpose, and Role of s 75(v)
B The Reforms of the 1970s and 1980s
C Changes in Migration Law during the 1990s
D Signs of Constitutionalization
1 ‘Jurisdictional Error’ Becomes a Benchmark Concept
2 The Term ‘Constitutional writ’
3 Rule of Law and Legality
4 The Law/Merits Distinction: Marking Out Judicial Territory
5 The Rejection of Deference
6 Legislative Curtailment of Judicial Review, and Judicial Responses, in the 1990s and 2000s
a) Review of ‘satisfaction’ of the decision-maker
b) Privative clauses
c) Non-extendable time limits
d) Non-compellable personal powers
E Consequences of Constitutionalization
1 Extension to State Supreme Courts: Kirk and Section 73(ii)
2 Role of Irrationality and Legal Unreasonableness in Constitutional Writ Review
F Predictions as to Future Developments
G Conclusion
Part VI Federalism
Ch.30 Design
A Introduction
B Formation
C Distribution of Powers
1 Legislative Powers
2 Executive Power
3 Judicial Power
4 Independence and Interdependence
D Representation
1 The Senate
2 House of Representatives
E Amendment
F Conclusions
Ch.31 Power
A Overview
B Public Power within the Colonial Australian Legal Systems
1 Reception of Common Law and its Pervasive Influence
2 Colonial Governments in the Nineteenth Century
C Federation and the Twentieth Century
D The Existence, Manner of Exercise, and Limits of Public Power
E Federal Legislative Power
F State Legislative Power
G Implied Constitutional Limitations upon Legislative Power
H Executive Power
I Judicial Power
1 Judicial Power Affected by Precedent and Comity
2 The Relationship between Legislative and Judicial Power, and Executive and Judicial Power
J Conclusions
Ch.32 Money
A Provisions of the Constitution Dealing With Money
B Federalism in Constitutional Interpretation
C Constitutional Interpretation of Money Provisions
D Taxing Powers
E Intergovernmental Arrangements About Public Borrowing
F Intergovernmental Arrangements About Commonwealth Grants to the States
G Commonwealth Power to Spend Money, Other than Under s 96
H Modern Relevance of Federal Considerations in Constitutional Interpretation
Ch.33 Co-Operative Federalism
A Introduction
B Federalism
C Co-operative Federalism— A Working Definition
D Australia’s Federal Constitution
E Co-operation and the Functioning of the Constitution
F Co-operation in the Constitutional Text
G Constitutional Boundaries
H Co-operative Federalism in Practice
I Conclusion
Ch.34 The Passage Towards Economic Union in Australia’s Federation
A Introduction
B The Concept of Economic Union and the Position at Federation
C Negative Economic Union as it Has Developed in Australia Since Federation
1 Changing Economic Forces
2 Negative Economic Union and Section 92
3 Negative Economic Union and Sections 51(ii) and 99
D Positive Economic Union as it Has Developed in Australia since Federation
1 A More Liberal Interpretation of the Heads of Commonwealth Legislative Power
2 A Positive Economic Union by Co-operation Between the Commonwealth and States
E Conclusion: Economic Union is Shaped Increasingly by Forces Outside the Nation
Ch.35 The Federal Principle
A Introduction
B Multiple Polities
1 Historical Context
2 Text and Structure
C Architecture and Authority
1 Historical context
2 Text and Structure
D Reciprocal Responsibility
1 Historical Context
2 Text and Structure
E Judicial Exegesis
1 Multiple Polities
2 Architecture and Authority
3 Reciprocal Responsibility
F CONCLUSION
Ch.36 Federal Jurisdiction
A Introduction
B American Origins and Australian Appropriations
C Federal Jurisdiction in Operation
1 Untangling Federal Jurisdiction
2 The Matters of Federal Jurisdiction
a) Section 75(iii) and (v)
b) Sections 76(i) and (ii)
c) The remaining heads of federal jurisdiction
2 Federal Authority to Exercise Commonwealth Judicial Power
3 The Law Area of Federal Jurisdiction
4 Returning to Sir Owen’s View
D Conceptions of Federal Jurisdiction
E Conclusion
Part VII Rights
Ch.37 Rights Protection in Australia
A Introduction
B A Constitution without a Bill of Rights
1 History
2 Explanations and Justifications
C Constitutional Provisions
1 Economic Rights
2 Civil and Political Rights
D Structural Features
1 Representative and Responsible Government
a) Direct effects on rights
b) Indirect effects on rights: voting and political communication
2 Bicameralism
3 Federalism
4 Separation of Powers
a) Protecting rights
b) Hindering innovation
5 The Rule of Law
E Conclusion
Ch.38 Due Process
A Introduction
B An Express Due Process Guarantee?
C Judicial Review and Separation of Powers
1 Judicial Review and the Communist Party Case
2 Separation of Powers and the Boilermakers’ Case
3 Federal and State Judicial Power
D Implied Due Process at Federal Level
1 The General Guarantee
2 Procedural Heartland
3 Boundaries of the Guarantee
4 Legislative and Executive Punishment
E Implied Due Process at State Level
1 Kable’s Case
2 The Kable Principle
3 S157 and Kirk
F Future Issues
1 Convergence
2 Legitimacy
G Conclusion
Ch.39 Expression
A Introduction
B Freedom of Expression, Democracy, and Constitutional Law
C The Origins of Freedom of Political Communication in Australian Constitutional Law
D Freedom of Political Communication as an Implication
E Freedom of Political Communication: The Fundamentals Elements
1 Foundations
2 Defamation, the Common Law, and the Freedom of Political Communication
3 Lange: Reformulation or Reaffirmation?
F Test for the Application of the Freedom of Political Communication
1 The Lange Test
2 Structured Proportionality: McCloy v New South Wales
3 The Effect of the McCloy Test
G The Application of the First Stage: What is a Burden on ‘Political Communication’?
1 What is Political Communication?
a) Non-verbal communication
b) Explicitly political communication
c) Possible subject of future laws or policies
d) Communication on matters indirectly relevant to voter choice
2 What is an ‘Effective Burden’ on Political Communication?
3 The Application of the Second Stage: Limitations on Freedom of Political Communication
a) Politics, money, and ‘enhancement regulation’
b) Civility and insult
H Conclusion
Ch.40 Political Participation
A The Power of the Commonwealth Parliament Over Federal Elections: A Plenary Power?
B The McKinlay Case: A Fork in the Road
C Legislative Freedom in Relation to the Federal Electoral System
1 Legislative Power and Choice
2 Legislative Power, Equality, and Discrimination
3 Mulholland: Legislative Power Over Federal Elections as a ‘Democratic Solution’
4 Day v Australian Electoral Officer for the State of South Australia
D The Right to Vote
1 No Express Right to Vote
2 An Implied Right to Vote
2 Roach v Electoral Commissioner: A Constitutional Right to Vote
3 Rowe v Electoral Commissioner: A Constitutional Right to Maximum Voting Participation?
E Campaign Finance and the Implied Freedom of Political Communication
F Conclusion
Ch.41 Property
A Introduction
B The Interpretive Questions Presented
1 The Purposes Question
2 The just terms question
3 The Definitional Questions: What Constitutes an ‘Acquisition of Property’?
C Defining the Scope of ‘Acquisitions’: The Problem of Regulatory Expropriations
1 Characterization Analysis vs Rights Analysis
2 Techniques of Characterization Analysis
a) The metaphysics of acquisition
b) Categorical exemptions
i) Subject matter-based categories
ii) Characteristic-based categories
D Conclusion: Ambivalence about the Status of Section 51(xxxi)—Source of Power or Constitutional Guarantee?
Ch.42 Religion
A Introduction
B History and Context of Section 116
C The Definition of a Religion
D Non-establishment of Religion
1 The General Approach to Interpreting Section 116
2 The Meaning of Establishment
E Free Exercise of Religion
1 Approach to the Free Exercise Clause
2 Restrictions on Free Exercise
F Conclusion
Ch.43 Equality
A Introduction
B Absence of an Express Guarantee of Equal Protection
C Absence of an Implied Guarantee of Equal Protection
D Prohibition of Discrimination on the Basis of Out-of-State Residence
E Race and Inequality in the Australian Constitution
F Conclusion
Ch.44 Legality
A Introduction
B Content
C Evolution
D Controversy
E Development
Further Material
Index
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Contents
Cheryl Saunders, Adrienne Stone
From:
The Oxford Handbook of the Australian Constitution
Edited By: Cheryl Saunders, Adrienne Stone
Content type:
Book content
Product:
Oxford Constitutions of the World [OCW]
Series:
Oxford Handbooks in Law
Published in print:
08 March 2018
ISBN:
9780198738435
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